Welcome to the NIFDI Direct Instruction Research Database. Here, we have sought to create a comprehensive archive of all articles, reports and studies done on Direct Instruction. This is a free service. Once you have selected the articles you would like us to forward, click on the "Check out" button. After you enter the requested information, your request will be forwarded to our office and we will fulfill your request within 3 working days.
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1 of 29
"Direct Instruction mathematics programs: An overview and research summary"
| Author(s): | Pryzchodzin, A. M., Marchnad-Martella, N. E., Martella, R. C., & Azim, D. |
| Year: | 2004 |
| Abstract: | This article provides a comprehensive overview of Direct Instruction mathematics programs. It compares the programs to a constructivist approach and shows how the DI programs meet the principles for improving mathematics instruction developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Results of studies of the efficacy of the DI mathematics programs are summarized, focusing on a meta-analysis of studies published before the early 1990s and 12 individual studies published from the 1990s to the date of the article. The meta-analysis of 37 studies published before the mid-1990s found an average effect size of 1.11 in favor of the DI programs, more than four times the level traditionally seen as educationally significant. Of the 12 individual studies reviewed, eleven found the DI programs to be effective. The results appeared in a variety of settings with a range of students. The only exception involved a study of five students that employed a slight modification of a DI mathematics program and assessed achievement with a test designed by the teachers in the study. |
| Description of the Study: | |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Journal of Direct Instruction, 4(1), 53-84 |
| Other Tags: | DISTAR Arithmetic, Corrective Mathematics, Connecting Math Concepts, constructivist approach |
| Affiliation: | |
| Design Type: | Narrative Literature Review |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | N/A |
| Location/Setting: | N/A |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | |
| Students Included: | N/A |
2 of 29
"Brief report – Connecting Math Concepts in special education"
| Author(s): | Helmke, L. |
| Year: | 1992 |
| Abstract: | This study examined the effect of Connecting Math Concepts on the numeration, computation, and applications skills of two special education elementary students. The Stanford Diagnostic Math Test was administered for pre- and posttest measures. Results indicate that Student A and B demonstrated growth of at least one year in numeration, computation, and applications after four and five months of instruction, respectively. Student A demonstrated grade equivalent gains of 2.6 in numeration and 4.2 in applications. Student B demonstrated grade equivalent gains of 3.1 in numeration and 1.7 in computation. |
| Description of the Study: | This study examined the effect of Connecting Math Concepts on the numeration, computation, and applications skills of two special education elementary students. The Stanford Diagnostic Math Test was administered for pre- and posttest measures. |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | DI News, 11(3), 14 |
| Other Tags: | Connecting Math Concepts, math, computation, applications, numeration |
| Affiliation: | Dubuque Community School District |
| Design Type: | Pretest posttest gain scores |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | No |
| Location/Setting: | Dubuque, Iowa, Midwest, elementary school |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | Results indicate that Student A and B demonstrated growth of at least one year in numeration, computation, and applications after four and five months of instruction, respectively. Student A demonstrated grade equivalent gains of 2.6 in numeration and 4.2 in applications. Student B demonstrated grade equivalent gains of 3.1 in numeration and 1.7 in computation. |
| Students Included: | Elementary students, special education students |
3 of 29
"Improving elementary level mathematics achievement in a large urban district: The effects of Direct Instruction"
| Author(s): | Stockard, J. |
| Year: | 2010 |
| Abstract: | This study examined changes in mathematics achievement over time in the BCPSS by comparing achievement of students in schools that used Direct Instruction programs with those that did not. Two DI programs were used, depending on students’ level and needs: DISTAR Arithmetic and Connecting Math Concepts. Mathematics achievement was assessed with the nationally normed Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) in the spring of each year, with sub-tests regarding 1) computations and 2) concepts and applications. Study A examined changes in the average achievement of first grade students over time. Study B looked at changes in individuals’ scores from first grade to fifth grade. Statistical models assessed the extent to which changes could be attributed to exposure to the DI programs, adjusting for differences in the average socio-economic level of the students’ schools. Results for the panel study were reported for both the full set of schools and for a smaller sample in which schools were matched on socio-economic characteristics. The average achievement of first grade students increased throughout the BCPSS in the study period. However, the increases were substantially larger for students in the DI schools than in the control schools. These differences were both statistically and educationally significant. The largest differences appeared in the later years of the study as Direct Instruction became fully implemented and incorporated within the schools. Results with Study B found that students in all groups had similar gains in computational skills from first to fifth grade. With the measure of concepts and applications, scores of students in the full set of control schools declined, over average, over time; while scores of the DI students and those in the reduced sample of comparison schools increased. However, the increase was significantly larger for the DI students. The effect size for the DI students was twice as large as that for the reduced sample of control students (.61 compared to .32). Similar results appeared with and without statistical controls. |
| Description of the Study: | |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Journal of Direct Instruction, 10(Winter), 1-16 |
| Other Tags: | DISTAR Arithmetic, Connecting Math Concepts, Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), implementation, whole school reform, basal program |
| Affiliation: | |
| Design Type: | Post-test only control group design (Study A) and a longitudinal panel design (Study B); both with statistical controls |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | Yes |
| Location/Setting: | Baltimore City Public School System (BCPSS), elementary school |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | |
| Students Included: | Students receiving free or reduced price lunch, African American students, Asian American students, Hispanic students, Native American students, and non-Hispanic white students |
4 of 29
"Direct Instruction and Reading in Africa: A Comparison of DIBELS Scores of a DI School in Liberia, a Comparison Liberian School, and US Schools"
| Author(s): | Stockard, J. |
| Year: | 2010 |
| Abstract: | This report first summarizes research on Direct Instruction (DI) and its use in the African context in the 1980s and 1990s. Next, the report describes the use of DI in a Liberian school and reports data on reading skills, comparing the achievement of the Liberian DI students to Liberian students in a comparison school and to students in the rural Midwestern United States that used DI. In the summer of 2004, Oregon-based educational consultants trained instructors at the school on techniques associated with Reading Mastery, Language for Learning, Reasoning and Writing, and Connecting Math Concepts. To examine students’ reading achievement, in fall, 2009, a random sample of 43 second to sixth grade students from the experimental group were administered the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) probes. 19 students from two nearby schools with similar populations, but did not use DI were used as a comparison group. Results from the DIBELS ORF indicated the mean scores for students in the Liberian DI school markedly outperformed the students in the comparison Liberian schools. The differences were always more than a standard deviation in magnitude. In comparison to the students selected from the U.S., the Liberian DI students had lower DIBEL ORF scores in the second through fourth grade, with differences ranging from about one half to almost three-quarters of a standard deviation in magnitude. However, the differences decreased in the higher grades. The Liberian DI student scores were within one-tenth of a standard deviation of the U.S. students. When scores from the three U.S. communities were disaggregated across the school districts, comparisons to the Liberian DI students indicated the average Liberian DI fifth grade student had higher DIBELS ORF scored than the average fifth grader in two of the comparison Midwest communities. Additionally, the average Liberian DI sixth grade student had a higher score than sixth grade students in one of the communities and came close to the average score in another community. Based on the DIBELS scores, and using mid-year U.S. norms for their grade, about one-third of the students in the Liberian DI group would be labeled at-risk of having future academic difficulties, while all but one student from the comparison group would have been given the same designation. Additionally, none of the students in the comparison group were labeled as low-risk, while one-third of the students in the experimental group received this designation. |
| Description of the Study: | This report first summarizes research on Direct Instruction (DI) and its use in the African context in the 1980s and 1990s. Next, the report describes the use of DI in a Liberian school and reports data on reading skills, comparing the achievement of the Liberian DI students to Liberian students in a comparison school and to students in the rural Midwestern United States that used DI. In the summer of 2004, Oregon-based educational consultants trained instructors at the school on techniques associated with Reading Mastery, Language for Learning, Reasoning and Writing, and Connecting Math Concepts. To examine students’ reading achievement, in fall, 2009, a random sample of 43 second to sixth grade students from the experimental group were administered the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) probes. 19 students from two nearby schools with similar populations, but did not use DI were used as a comparison group. |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | NIFDI Technical Report 2010-1 |
| Other Tags: | Reading Mastery, Language for Learning, Reasoning and Writing, Connecting Math Concepts, DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) |
| Affiliation: | National Institute for Direct Instruction |
| Design Type: | Non-matched comparison |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | No |
| Location/Setting: | Monrovia, Liberia, West Africa, elementary school, Midwest U.S. |
| Participants: | Elementary school students, at-risk students |
| Results: | Results from the DIBELS ORF indicated the mean scores for students in the Liberian DI school markedly outperformed the students in the comparison Liberian schools. The differences were always more than a standard deviation in magnitude. In comparison to the students selected from the U.S., the Liberian DI students had lower DIBEL ORF scores in the second through fourth grade, with differences ranging from about one half to almost three-quarters of a standard deviation in magnitude. However, the differences decreased in the higher grades. The Liberian DI student scores were within one-tenth of a standard deviation of the U.S. students. When scores from the three U.S. communities were disaggregated across the school districts, comparisons to the Liberian DI students indicated the average Liberian DI fifth grade student had higher DIBELS ORF scored than the average fifth grader in two of the comparison Midwest communities. Additionally, the average Liberian DI sixth grade student had a higher score than sixth grade students in one of the communities and came close to the average score in another community. Based on the DIBELS scores, and using mid-year U.S. norms for their grade, about one-third of the students in the Liberian DI group would be labeled at-risk of having future academic difficulties, while all but one student from the comparison group would have been given the same designation. Additionally, none of the students in the comparison group were labeled as low-risk, while one-third of the students in the experimental group received this designation. |
| Students Included: | Elementary school students, at-risk students |
5 of 29
"Improving Elementary Level Mathematics Achievement in a Large Urban District: The Effects of NIFDI-Supported Implementation of Direct Instruction in the Baltimore City Public School System"
| Author(s): | Stockard, J. |
| Year: | 2008 |
| Abstract: | In response to very low achievement scores, the Baltimore City Public School System (BCPSS) implemented curricular reforms in the late 1990’s. Under the guidance of the National Institute for Direct Instruction the district implemented Direct Instruction in 11 schools as part of a whole school reform. Initially reading curriculum was implemented and then within the next two years the Direct Instruction mathematics programs DISTAR Arithmetic and Connecting Math Concepts was added. All first and fifth grade students in BCPSS were administered the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) beginning in the spring of the 1997-1998 school year and concluding in the 2002-2003 school year. Data was retrieved from over 40,000 first grade students on mathematics achievement in computations, concepts and applications, and a composite score. This study compares students’ mathematics achievement in schools that implemented Direct Instruction (DI schools), and schools without Direct Instruction (Control schools). Results showed that first grade students in schools with Direct Instruction had significantly higher mathematics achievement than students in the control schools. The positive effects of Direct Instruction increased over time as the curricular changes became institutionalized within the schools. First grade students in both schools recorded higher levels of achievement in 2003 than 1998, but the increase was significantly larger for students in the NIFDI-supported Direct Instruction schools. On average the first grade composite mathematics achievement scores in the Direct Instruction schools increased by 135 percent from 1998 to 2003, but by only 54 percent in the control schools. |
| Description of the Study: | |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | National Institute for Direct Instruction Technical Report 2008-3 |
| Other Tags: | Baltimore City Public School System (BCPSS), Direct Instruction, DISTAR Arithmetic, Connecting Math Concepts, Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) |
| Affiliation: | |
| Design Type: | Longitudinal study |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | No |
| Location/Setting: | Baltimore, public elementary school |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | |
| Students Included: | Low income students, first grade students, fifth grade students, African American students, Caucasian students, Native American students, Asian students |
6 of 29
"Effects of Direct Instruction on telling time by students with autism"
| Author(s): | Thompson, J. L., Wood, C. L., Test, D. W., & Cease-Cook, J. |
| Year: | 2012 |
| Abstract: | This study examined the effect of Connecting Math Concepts on teaching three elementary students with autism to tell time to the five-minute increment. Students received one-on-one tutoring in a special education classroom. Telling time probes were administered throughout the study to measure students’ progress. Additional maintenance probes were administered after the conclusion of the study. Results indicate that all students increased their telling-time skills to the five-minute increment with scores falling within the range of typically-developing peers of the same age. |
| Description of the Study: | This study examined the effect of Connecting Math Concepts on teaching three elementary students with autism to tell time to the five-minute increment. Students received one-on-one tutoring in a special education classroom. Telling time probes were administered throughout the study to measure students’ progress. Additional maintenance probes were administered after the conclusion of the study. |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Journal of Direct Instruction, 12, 1-12 |
| Other Tags: | Connecting Math Concepts, telling time, students with autism spectrum disorder |
| Affiliation: | University of North Carolina at Charlotte |
| Design Type: | Single subject multiple probe design |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | Yes |
| Location/Setting: | Southeast, suburban area, elementary school, special education classroom |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | Results indicate that all students increased their telling-time skills to the five-minute increment with scores falling within the range of typically-developing peers of the same age. |
| Students Included: | Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), elementary students, special education students, African American students |
7 of 29
"Students gains in a privately managed network of charter schools using Direct Instruction"
| Author(s): | Cross, R. W., Rebarber, T., & Wilson, S. F. |
| Year: | 2002 |
| Abstract: | This study examined the effect of Direct Instruction programs on the academic achievement of students in Advantage Schools, a privately managed network of charter schools. Direct Instruction programs were used in all schools. Multiple Direct Instruction programs were implemented for reading, writing, and mathematics instruction. Students were placed in the different programs based on their skill level. Data came from the 1999-2000 school year. Students were tested twice a year, once in the fall and once in the spring with the mathematics subtest of the Stanford Achievement Test-Ninth Edition (SAT-9). On average, students in the Advantage Schools learned at an accelerated rate in comparison to national norms. Across all grades the average student moved from the 25th percentile at the beginning of the year to the 29th percentile in the spring. The greatest gains were seen among kindergarten students, where the average student moved from the 34th to 46th percentile. All changes, except for those in grades one and seven, were statistically significant. |
| Description of the Study: | This study examined the effect of Direct Instruction programs on the academic achievement of students in Advantage Schools, a privately managed network of charter schools. Direct Instruction programs were used in all schools. Multiple Direct Instruction programs were implemented for reading, writing, and mathematics instruction. Data came from the 1999-2000 school year. Students were tested twice a year, once in the fall and once in the spring with the mathematics subtest of the Stanford Achievement Test-Ninth Edition (SAT-9). |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Journal of Direct Instruction, 2(1), 3-21 |
| Other Tags: | Advantage School, charter school, Language for Learning, DISTAR Language, Reading Mastery, DISTAR Arithmetic, Connecting Math Concepts, Reasoning and Writing, Spelling Mastery, Expressive Writing, implementation, Stanford Achievement Test Ninth Edition |
| Affiliation: | Advantage Schools |
| Design Type: | Pretest-Posttest Norm Comparison Design |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | Yes |
| Location/Setting: | Charter school, northeast, mid-west, south, west |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | On average, students in the Advantage Schools learned at an accelerated rate in comparison to national norms. Across all grades the average student moved from the 25th percentile at the beginning of the year to the 29th percentile in the spring. The greatest gains were seen among kindergarten students, where the average student moved from the 34th to 46th percentile. All changes, except for those in grades one and seven, were statistically significant. |
| Students Included: | Kindergarten students, elementary school students, middle school students |
8 of 29
"A study of intensive, systematic Direct Instruction for an autistic child"
| Author(s): | Rodman, M. L. |
| Year: | 2007 |
| Abstract: | This five-year study examined the effect of supplemental instruction with Direct Instruction (DI) programs by a parent on the academic achievement of an elementary student with autism spectrum disorder. At the beginning of the study, the subject was an eight year old female who was functioning at a pre-kindergarten level. The student received instruction with a variety of DI programs covering language, reading, and math. Curriculum based tests were administered throughout the course of the study to measure academic achievement. Additional tests were administered to measure social skills and cognitive development. Results indicate the student demonstrated significant gains in all areas of development over the course of the study. By the conclusion of the intervention the student had transitioned into the range of “normal performance” for academic performance and social skills. Additionally, her IQ was measured to be in the near normal range for her age by the conclusion of the study. |
| Description of the Study: | This five-year study examined the effect of supplemental instruction with Direct Instruction (DI) programs by a parent on the academic achievement of an elementary student with autism spectrum disorder. At the beginning of the study, the subject was an eight year old female who was functioning at a pre-kindergarten level. The student received instruction with a variety of DI programs covering language, reading, and math. Curriculum based tests were administered throughout the course of the study to measure academic achievement. Additional tests were administered to measure social skills and cognitive development. |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Capella University: Minneapolis, MN |
| Other Tags: | Parent tutoring, Reading Mastery Rainbow Edition, Corrective Reading, Language for Learning, Language for Thinking, Reasoning and Writing, Cursive Writing, Connecting Math Concepts, Spelling Mastery, Corrective Spelling Through Morphographs, social skills |
| Affiliation: | Capella University |
| Design Type: | Single subject design |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | No |
| Location/Setting: | Student’s home |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | Results indicate the student demonstrated significant gains in all areas of development over the course of the study. By the conclusion of the intervention the student had transitioned into the range of “normal performance” for academic performance and social skills. Additionally, her IQ was measured to be in the near normal range for her age by the conclusion of the study. |
| Students Included: | Students with autism spectrum disorder, elementary student, students with learning disabilities, low-performing students, Caucasian students |
9 of 29
"Effects of using a scientifically and evidence-based mathematics curriculum to teach fifth grade math skills to a heterogeneous group of fifth graders in a parochial, Catholic school"
| Author(s): | Skarr, A. |
| Year: | 2013 |
| Abstract: | This study examined the effects of implementing Connecting Math Concepts Level E (CMC-E) for a 5 month period (January to June of 2012). Pre-assessment and post-assessment was conducted with the curriculum-based EasyCBM, including a total score as well as sub-test scores related to number and operations thinking; number, operations and algebra thinking; and geometry, measurement, and algebra thinking. Data on a national sample were available for the total score. Students had significantly higher scores on all measures at the end of the study than they had at the beginning. At the start of the study the CMC-E students’ total Easy CBM scores were markedly lower than the national sample. But, by the end of the study their scores were equivalent to those in the nation. The increases over time for the study sample were significantly greater than gains found in the nation as a whole, and the associated effect size was educationally significant. In addition, the students reported enjoying the program and becoming more confident with mathematics. |
| Description of the Study: | |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Masters of Education Capstone Paper, University of Portland, Portland, Oregon |
| Other Tags: | Connecting Math Concepts, Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS), EasyCBM test, No Child Left Behind, Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), math textbook design |
| Affiliation: | |
| Design Type: | Pretest-posttest norm comparison design |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | Yes |
| Location/Setting: | Private Catholic School, Pacific Northwest |
| Participants: | |
| Results: | |
| Students Included: | Fifth grade students, students with high-level math skills, students below grade level, students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), students with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), English Language Learner (ELL) |
10 of 29
"A pilot study of the effect of Direct Instruction programming on the academic performance of students with intractable epilepsy"
| Author(s): | Humphries, T., Neufeld, M., Johnson, C., Enges, K., & McKay, R. |
| Year: | 2005 |
| Abstract: | This study examined the effect of Direct Instruction (DI) programs on the academic achievement of 55 students with intractable epilepsy and learning difficulties. The programs implemented included Reading Mastery, Corrective Reading, Horizons, Reasoning and Writing, Connecting Math Concepts, Language for Learning, and Spelling Mastery. Student ages ranged from 6.5 to 14.1 years and student mean IQ was 71.25. Students received instruction in groups of no more than 8, 3 to 4.5 times per week for up to 16 weeks. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children was administered for pretest measures and the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement was administered for pre- and posttest measures. Pretest results indicated that students were below test means in reading and mathematics, particularly calculation. Posttest results indicated significant improvement in all academic areas except word identification in reading. Additionally, gains in passage comprehension and mathematic problem solving were associated with IQ level, but no academic gains were associated with seizure variables or the number of days of exposure to DI. |
| Description of the Study: | This study examined the effect of Direct Instruction (DI) programs on the academic achievement of 55 students with intractable epilepsy and learning difficulties. The programs implemented included Reading Mastery, Corrective Reading, Horizons, Reasoning and Writing, Connecting Math Concepts, Language for Learning, and Spelling Mastery. Student ages ranged from 6.5 to 14.1 years and student mean IQ was 71.25. Students received instruction in groups of no more than 8, 3 to 4.5 times per week for up to 16 weeks. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children was administered for pretest measures and the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement was administered for pre- and posttest measures. |
| Article Type: | Efficacy study |
| Journal/Source: | Epilepsy & Behavior, 6(3), 405-412 |
| Other Tags: | Reading Mastery, Corrective Reading, Horizons, Reasoning and Writing, Connecting Math Concepts, Language for Learning, and Spelling Mastery, Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised, Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children, reading, math, spelling, writing |
| Affiliation: | Child Development Centre, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada; Toronto District School Board; Toronto Catholic District School Board |
| Design Type: | Pretest posttest, gain scores |
| Fidelity Data Reported: | No |
| Location/Setting: | Hospital based classroom, Child Development Centre, Hospital of Sick Children, Toronto, Canada |
| Participants: | Elementary students, secondary students, students with intractable epilepsy, students with learning disabilities, at-risk students, Caucasian students, Asian students, Middle Eastern students, African American students, students with low IQs |
| Results: | Pretest results indicated that students were below test means in reading and mathematics, particularly calculation. Posttest results indicated significant improvement in all academic areas except word identification in reading. Additionally, gains in passage comprehension and mathematic problem solving were associated with IQ level, but no academic gains were associated with seizure variables or the number of days of exposure to DI. |
| Students Included: | Elementary students, secondary students, students with intractable epilepsy, students with learning disabilities, at-risk students, Caucasian students, Asian students, Middle Eastern students, African American students, students with low IQs |